Test Bank for Biological Science 3rd Canadian Edition by Scott Freeman
Test Bank for Biological Science 3rd Canadian Edition by Scott Freeman
Biological Science, the Third Canadian Edition, brings together Scott Freeman’s pioneering active learning approach with carefully selected coverage of Canadian issues and research. Each page of the book is designed in the spirit of active learning, asking students to apply critical thinking skills as they learn key concepts. Accounts of researchers designing and analyzing real experiments, carefully punctuated by thoughtful questions and exercises, train introductory students in the process of DOING biology.
Table of Content
A Student-Centred Approach to the Study of Biology
Develop a Conceptual Understanding of Biology
Engage in Scientific Inquiry and Active Problem Solving
Develop Skills for Success in Biology and Beyond…
For Instructors: Easily Align Assessment with Your Course Goals
Succeed with Mastering Biology
Biological Science
Biological Science
Detailed Contents
About the Authors
Preface to Instructors
Core Values
What’s New in this Edition
Hallmark Features of the Text
Integration of Media
Supplements Contributors
Book Team
Serving a Community of Teachers
Content Highlights of the Third Canadian Edition
1 Biology and the Tree of Life
1.1 What Does It Mean to Say That Something Is Alive?
1.2 Life Is Cellular
All Organisms Are Made of Cells
Where Do Cells Come From?
Two Hypotheses
An Experiment to Settle the Question
Life Replicates through Cell Division
1.3 Life Evolves
What Is Evolution?
What Is Natural Selection?
Two Conditions of Natural Selection
Fitness and Adaptation
1.4 Life Processes Information
The Central Dogma
Life Requires Energy
1.5 The Tree of Life
Using Molecules to Understand the Tree of Life
Analyzing Genetic Variation
The Tree of Life Estimated from Genetic Data
The Tree of Life Is a Work in Progress
How Should We Name Branches on the Tree of Life?
Scientific (Latin) Names
Scientific Names Are Often Descriptive
1.6 Doing Biology
How Has Artificial Selection Affected Bighorn Sheep? An Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
How Do Ants Navigate? An Introduction to Experimental Design
The Pedometer Hypothesis
Testing the Hypothesis
Interpreting the Results
Important Characteristics of Good Experimental Design
Chapter 1 Review
1.1 What Does It Mean to Say That Something Is Alive?
1.2 Life Is Cellular
1.3 Life Evolves
1.4 Life Processes Information
1.5 The Tree of Life
1.6 Doing Biology
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
The Big Picture
BioSkills
BioSkill 1 Using the Metric System and Significant Figures
Significant Figures
Rules for Working with Significant Figures
Using Scientific Notation
Precision versus Accuracy
Combining Measurements
BioSkill 2 Reading and Making Graphs
Getting Started
What Do the Axes Represent?
What Do the Data Points Represent?
What Is the Overall Trend or Message?
Types of Graphs
Scatterplots, Lines, and Curves
Bar Charts, Histograms, and Box-and-Whisker Plots
Getting Practice
BioSkill 3 Interpreting Standard Error Bars and Using Statistical Tests
Standard Error Bars
Using Statistical Tests
Interpreting P Values and Statistical Significance
BioSkill 4 Working with Probabilities
The Both-And Rule
The Either-Or Rule
BioSkill 5 Separating and Visualizing Molecules
Using Electrophoresis to Separate Molecules
An Example “Run”
Why Do Separated Molecules Form Bands?
Capillary Tube Electrophoresis
Using Thin Layer Chromatography to Separate Molecules
Visualizing Molecules
Using Nucleic Acid and Protein Stains
Reading a Slab Gel
Reading a Capillary Tube Gel
Using X-ray Crystallography to Visualize Macromolecules
BioSkill 6 Separating Cell Components by Centrifugation
BioSkill 7 Using Microscopy
Light and Fluorescence Microscopy
Electron Microscopy
Transmission Electron Microscopy
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Studying Live Cells and Real-Time Processes
Visualizing Cellular Structures in 3-D
BioSkill 8 Using Molecular Biology Tools and Techniques
Making and Using DNA Libraries
Creating a cDNA Library
Finding a Particular cDNA in a Library
Using a cDNA
Amplifying DNA Using the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
Automated Sanger DNA Sequencing
Next-Generation DNA Sequencing (NGS)
BioSkill 9 Using Cell Culture and Model Organisms as Tools
Cell and Tissue Culture Methods
Animal Cell Culture
Plant Tissue Culture
Model Organisms
Escherichia coli
Arabidopsis thaliana
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Drosophila melanogaster
Caenorhabditis elegans
Mus musculus
BioSkill 10 Reading and Making Visual Models
Tips for Interpreting Models
Tips for Making Your Own Models
Concept Maps
BioSkill 11 Reading and Making Phylogenetic Trees
Anatomy of a Phylogenetic Tree
How to Read a Phylogenetic Tree
How to Draw a Phylogenetic Tree
BioSkill 12 Reading Chemical Structures
BioSkill 13 Translating Greek and Latin Roots in Biology
BioSkill 14 Reading and Citing the Primary Literature
What Is the Primary Literature?
Getting Started
Citing Sources
Getting Practice
BioSkill 15 Recognizing and Correcting Misconceptions
BioSkill 16 Using Bloom’s Taxonomy for Study Success
Categories of Human Cognition
Six Study Steps to Success
Unit 1 The Molecular Origin and Evolution of Life
2 Water and Carbon: The Chemical Basis of Life
2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution
Basic Atomic Structure
How Does Covalent Bonding Hold Molecules Together?
Nonpolar and Polar Bonds
Polar Bonds Produce Partial Charges on Atoms
Ionic Bonding, Ions, and the Electron-Sharing Continuum
Some Simple Molecules Formed from C, H, N, and O
The Geometry of Simple Molecules
Representing Molecules
2.2 Properties of Water and the Early Oceans
Why Is Water Such an Efficient Solvent?
What Properties Are Correlated with Water’s Structure?
Cohesion, Adhesion, and Surface Tension
Water Is Denser as a Liquid than as a Solid
The Role of Water in Acid–Base Chemical Reactions
Determining the Concentration of Protons
The pH of a Solution Reveals Whether It Is Acidic or Basic
Buffers Protect against Damaging Changes in pH
2.3 Chemical Reactions, Energy, and Chemical Evolution
How Do Chemical Reactions Happen?
What Is Energy?
What Makes a Chemical Reaction Spontaneous?
2.4 Model Systems for Investigating Chemical Evolution
Early Origin-of-Life Experiments
Recent Origin-of-Life Experiments
Synthesis of Precursors Using Light Energy
Concentration and Catalysis in Hydrothermal Vents
2.5 The Importance of Organic Molecules
Linking Carbon Atoms Together
Functional Groups
Chapter 2 Review
2.1 Atoms, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks of Chemical Evolution
2.2 Properties of Water and the Early Oceans
2.3 Chemical Reactions, Energy, and Chemical Evolution
2.4 Model Systems for Investigating Chemical Evolution
2.5 The Importance of Organic Molecules
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
3 Protein Structure and Function
3.1 Amino Acids and Their Polymerization
The Structure of Amino Acids
The Nature of Side Chains
Functional Groups Affect Reactivity
The Polarity and Charge of R-Groups Affect Solubility
How Do Amino Acids Link to Form Proteins?
Polymerization of Proteins in Early Earth
The Peptide Bond
3.2 What Do Proteins Look Like?
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
Quaternary Structure
3.3 Folding and Function
Normal Folding Is Crucial to Function
Protein Shape Is Flexible
Protein Folding Is Often Regulated
Folding Can Be “Infectious”
3.4 Protein Functions Are as Diverse as Protein Structures
Why Are Enzymes Good Catalysts?
Did Life Arise from a Self-Replicating Enzyme?
Chapter 3 Review
3.1 Amino Acids and Their Polymerization
3.2 What Do Proteins Look Like?
3.3 Folding and Function
3.4 Protein Functions Are as Diverse as Protein Structures
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
4 Nucleic Acids and the RNA World
4.1 What Is a Nucleic Acid?
What Are Nucleotides?
Nucleotides Are Made from Three Components
How Nucleotides Are Named
Could Chemical Evolution Result in the Production of Nucleotides?
How Do Nucleotides Polymerize to Form Nucleic Acids?
DNA and RNA Strands Are Directional
Polymerization Requires an Energy Source
Could Nucleic Acids Have Formed in the Absence of Cellular Enzymes?
4.2 DNA Structure and Function
What Is the Nature of DNA’s Secondary Structure?
Early Data Provided Clues
DNA Strands Form an Antiparallel Double Helix
The Tertiary Structure of DNA
DNA Functions as an Information-Containing Molecule
The DNA Double Helix Is a Stable Structure
4.3 RNA Structure and Function
Structurally, RNA Differs from DNA
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Tertiary Structure
RNA Is an Information-Containing Molecule
RNA Can Function as a Catalytic Molecule
4.4 In Search of the First Life-Form
How Biologists Study the RNA World
The RNA World May Have Sparked the Evolution of Life
Chapter 4 Review
4.1 What Is a Nucleic Acid?
4.2 DNA Structure and Function
4.3 RNA Structure and Function
4.4 In Search of the First Life-Form
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
5 An Introduction to Carbohydrates
5.1 Sugars as Monomers
What Distinguishes One Monosaccharide from Another?
Can Monosaccharides Form by Chemical Evolution?
5.2 The Structure of Disaccharides
5.3 The Structure of Polysaccharides
Starch: A Storage Polysaccharide in Plants
Glycogen: A Highly Branched Storage Polysaccharide in Animals
Cellulose: A Structural Polysaccharide in Plants
Chitin: A Structural Polysaccharide in Fungi and Animals
Peptidoglycan: A Structural Polysaccharide in Bacteria
Polysaccharides and Chemical Evolution
5.4 What Do Carbohydrates Do?
Carbohydrates Can Provide Structural Support
The Role of Carbohydrates in Cell Identity
Carbohydrates and Energy Storage
Carbohydrates Store Sunlight as Chemical Energy
Enzymes Hydrolyze Polysaccharides to Release Glucose
Energy Stored in Glucose Is Used to Make ATP
Chapter 5 Review
5.1 Sugars as Monomers
5.2 The Structure of Disaccharides
5.3 The Structure of Polysaccharides
5.4 What Do Carbohydrates Do?
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
6 Lipids, Membranes, and the First Cells
6.1 Lipid Structure and Function
Why Is Bond Structure Important?
Bond Saturation Affects Structure
Bond Saturation Affects Our Diet
A Look at Three Types of Lipids Found in Cells
Steroids
Fats
Phospholipids
How Membrane Lipids Interact with Water
Were Lipids Present during Chemical Evolution?
6.2 Phospholipid Bilayers
Artificial Membranes as an Experimental System
Selective Permeability of Lipid Bilayers
How Does Lipid Structure Affect Membrane Permeability?
Bond Saturation and Hydrocarbon Chain Length Affect Membrane Fluidity and Permeability
Cholesterol Reduces Membrane Permeability
How Does Temperature Affect the Fluidity and Permeability of Membranes?
6.3 How Substances Move across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis
Diffusion
Osmosis
Membranes and Chemical Evolution
6.4 Proteins Alter Membrane Structure and Function
Development of the Fluid-Mosaic Model
Systems for Studying Membrane Proteins
Channel Proteins Facilitate Diffusion
Is an Ion Channel Involved in Cystic Fibrosis?
Protein Structure Determines Channel Selectivity
Movement through Many Membrane Channels Is Regulated
Carrier Proteins Facilitate Diffusion
The Search for a Glucose Carrier
How Does GLUT-1 Work?
Pumps and Coupled Transporters Perform Active Transport
The Sodium–Potassium Pump
Coupled Transporters
Plasma Membranes Define the Intracellular Environment
Chapter 6 Review
6.1 Lipid Structure and Function
6.2 Phospholipid Bilayers
6.3 How Substances Move across Lipid Bilayers: Diffusion and Osmosis
6.4 Proteins Alter Membrane Structure and Function
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
The Big Picture
Unit 2 Cell Structure and Function
7 Inside the Cell
7.1 Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and Their Functions
A Revolutionary New View
Prokaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List
The Chromosome Is Organized in a Nucleoid
Ribosomes Manufacture Proteins
Photosynthetic Species Have Internal Membrane Complexes
Organelles Perform Specialized Functions
The Cytoskeleton Structures the Cell Interior
The Plasma Membrane Separates Life from Nonlife
The Cell Wall Forms a Protective “Exoskeleton”
External Structures Enable Movement and Attachment
7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their Functions
The Benefits of Organelles
Eukaryotic Cell Structures: A Parts List
The Nucleus
Ribosomes
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Golgi Apparatus
Lysosomes
Vacuoles
Peroxisomes
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Cytoskeleton
The Eukaryotic Cell Wall
7.3 Putting the Parts into a Whole
Structure and Function at the Whole-Cell Level
The Dynamic Cell
7.4 Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport
Structure and Function of the Nuclear Envelope
How Do Molecules Enter the Nucleus?
7.5 Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and Recycles Cargo
Studying the Pathway through the Endomembrane System
Tracking Protein Movement via Pulse–Chase Assay
Results of the Pulse–Chase Experiment
Entering the Endomembrane System: The Signal Hypothesis
Moving from the ER to the Golgi Apparatus
What Happens Inside the Golgi Apparatus?
How Do Proteins Reach Their Destinations?
Recycling Material in the Lysosome
7.6 Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton
Actin Filaments
Actin Filament Structure
Actin Filament Function
Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules
Microtubules Serve as Tracks for Vesicle Transport
Motor Proteins Pull Vesicles Along the Tracks
Flagella and Cilia: Moving the Entire Cell
How Are Cilia and Flagella Constructed?
What Provides the Force Required for Movement?
Chapter 7 Review
7.1 Bacterial and Archaeal Cell Structures and Their Functions
7.2 Eukaryotic Cell Structures and Their Functions
7.3 Putting the Parts into a Whole
7.4 Cell Systems I: Nuclear Transport
7.5 Cell Systems II: The Endomembrane System Manufactures, Ships, and Recycles Cargo
7.6 Cell Systems III: The Dynamic Cytoskeleton
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
8 Energy and Enzymes: An Introduction to Metabolism
8.1 What Happens to Energy in Chemical Reactions?
Chemical Reactions Involve Energy Transformations
Temperature and Concentration Affect Reaction Rates
8.2 Nonspontaneous Reactions May Be Driven Using Chemical Energy
Redox Reactions Transfer Energy via Electrons
An Example of Redox in Action
Another Approach to Understanding Redox
ATP Transfers Energy via Phosphate Groups
ATP Hydrolysis Releases Free Energy
How Does ATP Drive Endergonic Reactions?
8.3 How Enzymes Work
Enzymes Help Reactions Clear Two Hurdles
Enzymes Bring Substrates Together
Enzymes Lower the Activation Energy
What Limits the Rate of Catalysis?
Do Enzymes Work Alone?
8.4 What Factors Affect Enzyme Function?
Enzymes Are Optimized for Particular Environments
Most Enzymes Are Regulated
Regulating Enzymes via Noncovalent Interactions
Regulating Enzymes via Covalent Modifications
8.5 Enzymes Can Work Together in Metabolic Pathways
Metabolic Pathways Are Regulated
Metabolic Pathways Evolve
Chapter 8 Review
8.1 What Happens to Energy in Chemical Reactions?
8.2 Nonspontaneous Reactions May Be Driven Using Chemical Energy
8.3 How Enzymes Work
8.4 What Factors Affect Enzyme Function?
8.5 Enzymes Can Work Together in Metabolic Pathways
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
9 Cellular Respiration and Fermentation
9.1 An Overview of Cellular Respiration
What Happens When Glucose Is Oxidized?
Cellular Respiration Plays a Central Role in Metabolism
Catabolic Pathways Break Down a Variety of Molecules
Catabolic Intermediates Are Used in Anabolic Pathways
9.2 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
Glycolysis Is a Sequence of 10 Reactions
How Is Glycolysis Regulated?
9.3 Processing Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
9.4 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidizing Acetyl CoA to CO2
What Happens to the NADH and FADH2?
9.5 Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis: Building a Proton Gradient to Produce ATP
The Electron Transport Chain
Organization of the Electron Transport Chain
Role of the Electron Transport Chain
The Discovery of ATP Synthase
The Chemiosmosis Hypothesis
The Proton Gradient Couples Electron Transport to ATP Synthesis
Organisms Use a Diversity of Electron Acceptors
Aerobic versus Anaerobic Respiration
9.6 Fermentation
Many Different Fermentation Pathways Exist
Lactic Acid Fermentation and the Cori Cycle
Alcohol Fermentation and Other Types of Fermentation
Fermentation as an Alternative to Cellular Respiration
Chapter 9 Review
9.1 An Overview of Cellular Respiration
9.2 Glycolysis: Oxidizing Glucose to Pyruvate
9.3 Processing Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
9.4 The Citric Acid Cycle: Oxidizing Acetyl CoA to CO2
9.5 Electron Transport and Chemiosmosis: Building a Proton Gradient to Produce ATP
9.6 Fermentation
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
10 Photosynthesis
10.1 Photosynthesis Harnesses Sunlight to Make Carbohydrate
Photosynthesis: Two Linked Sets of Reactions
Photosynthesis Occurs in Chloroplasts
10.2 How Do Pigments Capture Light Energy?
Photosynthetic Pigments Absorb Light
Different Pigments Absorb Different Wavelengths of Light
Which Part of a Pigment Absorbs Light?
What Is the Role of Carotenoids and Other Accessory Pigments?
When Light Is Absorbed, Electrons Enter an Excited State
The Antenna Complex
The Reaction Centre
10.3 The Discovery of Photosystems I and II
How Does Photosystem II Work?
Converting Light Energy into Chemical Energy
Photosystem II Obtains Electrons from Water
How Does Photosystem I Work?
The Z Scheme: Photosystems II and I Work Together
Understanding the Enhancement Effect
Linear Electron Flow between Water and NADP+
Cyclic Electron Flow Recycles Electrons and Drives Photophos-phorylation
Oxygenic Photosynthesis and the Evolution of Earth
10.4 How Is Carbon Dioxide Reduced to Produce Sugars?
The Calvin Cycle Fixes Carbon
RuBP Is the Initial Reactant with CO2
The Calvin Cycle Is a Three-Step Process
The Discovery of Rubisco
How Is Photosynthesis Regulated?
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Pass through Stomata
Mechanisms for Increasing CO2 Concentration
The C4 Pathway
Other Carbon Concentrating Mechanisms
What Happens to the Sugar That Is Produced by Photosynthesis?
Chapter 10 Review
10.1 Photosynthesis Harnesses Sunlight to Make Carbohydrate
10.2 How Do Pigments Capture Light Energy?
10.3 The Discovery of Photosystems I and II
10.4 How Is Carbon Dioxide Reduced to Produce Sugars?
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
The Big Picture
11 Cell–Cell Interactions
11.1 The Cell Surface
The Structure and Function of an Extracellular Layer
The Extracellular Matrix in Animals
The Cell Wall in Plants
Primary Cell Walls
Secondary Cell Walls
11.2 How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate?
Cell–Cell Attachments in Multicellular Eukaryotes
Indirect Intercellular Attachments
Tight Junctions Form a Seal between Cells
Desmosomes Form Secure Adhesions
Intercellular Adhesions Are Selective
The Discovery of Cell–Cell Adhesion Proteins
Cells Communicate via Cell–Cell Gaps
Gap Junctions Connect Cells via Protein Channels
Plasmodesmata Connect Cells via Membrane-Lined Channels
11.3 How Do Distant Cells Communicate?
Cell–Cell Signalling in Multicellular Organisms
Signal Reception
Signal Processing
Processing Lipid-Soluble Signalling Molecules
Processing Lipid-Insoluble Signalling Molecules
Signal Transduction via G-Protein-Coupled Receptors
Signal Response
Signal Deactivation
11.4 Signalling between Unicellular Organisms
Chapter 11 Review
11.1 The Cell Surface
11.2 How Do Adjacent Cells Connect and Communicate?
11.3 How Do Distant Cells Communicate?
11.4 Signalling between Unicellular Organisms
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
12 The Cell Cycle
12.1 How Do Cells Replicate?
What Is a Chromosome?
Cells Alternate between M Phase and Interphase
The Discovery of S Phase
The Discovery of the Gap Phases
The Cell Cycle
12.2 What Happens during M Phase?
Proteins Needed for Mitosis
Cohesins
Microtubules
Kinetochore Proteins
Nuclear Lamins
Condensins
Events in Mitosis
Interphase
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
How Do Chromosomes Move during Anaphase?
Mitotic Spindle Forces
Kinetochores Are Linked to Retreating Microtubule Ends
Cytokinesis Results in Two Daughter Cells
Bacterial Cell Replication
12.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
The Discovery of Cell-Cycle Regulatory Molecules
MPF Contains a Protein Kinase and a Cyclin
How Is MPF Turned On?
What Does MPF Do?
How Is MPF Turned Off?
Cell-Cycle Checkpoints Can Arrest the Cell Cycle
G1 Checkpoint
G2 Checkpoint
M-Phase Checkpoints
12.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division
Properties of Cancer Cells
Causes of Cancer
Loss of Social Control
Loss of p53 Proteins
Suppression of the Apoptosis Pathway
Chapter 12 Review
12.1 How Do Cells Replicate?
12.2 What Happens during M Phase?
12.3 Control of the Cell Cycle
12.4 Cancer: Out-of-Control Cell Division
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
Unit 3 Gene Structure and Expression
13 Meiosis
13.1 How Does Meiosis Occur?
Organisms Have Unique Chromosome Compositions
Chromosomes Come in Distinct Sizes and Shapes
Chromosomes Carry Genes
The Concept of Ploidy
Most Eukaryotic Species Are Diploid
Some Eukaryotic Species Are Polyploid
An Overview of Meiosis
Meiosis Consists of Two Cell Divisions
Meiosis I Is a Reduction Division
The Phases of Meiosis I
Early Prophase I
Late Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I and Telophase I
Meiosis I: A Recap
The Phases of Meiosis II
A Closer Look at Synapsis and Crossing Over
Mitosis versus Meiosis
13.2 Meiosis Promotes Genetic Variation
Chromosomes and Heredity
The Role of Independent Assortment
The Role of Crossing Over
How Does Fertilization Affect Genetic Variation?
13.3 What Happens When Things Go Wrong in Meiosis?
How Do Mistakes Occur?
Why Do Mistakes Occur?
13.4 Why Does Meiosis Exist?
The Paradox of Sex
The Purifying Selection Hypothesis
The Changing-Environment Hypothesis
Chapter 13 Review
13.1 How Does Meiosis Occur?
13.2 Meiosis Promotes Genetic Variation
13.3 What Happens When Things Go Wrong in Meiosis?
13.4 Why Does Meiosis Exist?
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
14 Mendel and the Gene
14.1 Mendel’s Experimental System
What Questions Was Mendel Trying to Answer?
The Garden Pea Served as the First Model Organism in Genetics
How Did Mendel Control Matings?
What Traits Did Mendel Study?
14.2 Mendel’s Experiments with a Single Trait
The Monohybrid Cross
Dominant and Recessive Traits
A Reciprocal Cross
Do Mendel’s Results Hold for Other Traits?
Particulate Inheritance
Genes, Alleles, and Genotypes
The Principle of Segregation
Predicting Offspring Genotypes and Phenotypes with a Punnett Square
14.3 Mendel’s Experiments with Two Traits
The Dihybrid Cross
Using a Testcross to Confirm Predictions
14.4 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
Meiosis Explains Mendel’s Principles
Testing the Chromosome Theory
The White-Eyed Mutant
The Discovery of Sex Chromosomes
Sex Linkage and the Chromosome Theory
14.5 Extending Mendel’s Rules
Linkage: What Happens When Genes Are Located on the Same Chromosome?
Does Linked Mean Inseparable?
The Role of Crossing Over
How Many Alleles Can a Gene Have?
Are Alleles Always Dominant or Recessive?
Codominance
Incomplete Dominance
Does Each Gene Affect Just One Trait?
Are All Traits Determined by a Gene?
The Environment Affects Phenotypes
Different Genes Can Work Together to Affect One Phenotype
Can Mendel’s Principles Explain Traits That Don’t Fall into Distinct Categories?
14.6 Applying Mendel’s Rules to Human Inheritance
Identifying Alleles as Recessive or Dominant
Autosomal Recessive Traits
Autosomal Dominant Traits
Identifying Traits as Autosomal or Sex-Linked
X-linked Recessive Traits
X-linked Dominant Traits
Chapter 14 Review
14.1 Mendel’s Experimental System
14.2 Mendel’s Experiments with a Single Trait
14.3 Mendel’s Experiments with Two Traits
14.4 The Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
14.5 Extending Mendel’s Rules
14.6 Applying Mendel’s Rules to Human Inheritance
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
15 DNA and the Gene: Synthesis and Repair
15.1 What Are Genes Made Of?
The Hershey–Chase Experiment
The Secondary Structure of DNA
15.2 Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis
Three Alternative Hypotheses
The Meselson–Stahl Experiment
15.3 A Model for DNA Synthesis
Where Does Replication Start?
How Is the Helix Opened and Stabilized?
How Is the Leading Strand Synthesized?
How Is the Lagging Strand Synthesized?
The Discontinuous Replication Hypothesis
The Discovery of Okazaki Fragments
15.4 Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes
The End Replication Problem
Telomerase Solves the End Replication Problem
Telomere DNA Is Made of a Simple Repeat
Telomerase Synthesizes Telomere DNA
Telomerase Regulation
15.5 Repairing Mistakes and DNA Damage
Correcting Mistakes in DNA Synthesis
DNA Polymerase Proofreads
Mismatch Repair
Repairing Damaged DNA
DNA Repair and the Cell Cycle
Chapter 15 Review
15.1 What Are Genes Made Of?
15.2 Testing Early Hypotheses about DNA Synthesis
15.3 A Model for DNA Synthesis
15.4 Replicating the Ends of Linear Chromosomes
15.5 Repairing Mistakes and DNA Damage
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
16 How Genes Work
16.1 What Do Genes Do?
The One-Gene, One-Enzyme Hypothesis
An Experimental Test of the Hypothesis
16.2 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
RNA as the Intermediary between Genes and Proteins
Dissecting the Central Dogma
Linking the Central Dogma to Cellular Processes
Linking the Central Dogma to Phenotypes
Exceptions to the Central Dogma
16.3 The Genetic Code
How Long Is a “Word” in the Genetic Code?
How Did Researchers Crack the Code?
Analyzing the Code
The Value of Knowing the Code
16.4 What Are the Types and Consequences of Mutation?
Point Mutations
Base-Pair Substitution Mutations
Insertion-Deletion Mutations
Consequences of Point Mutations
Chromosome Mutations
Chapter 16 Review
16.1 What Do Genes Do?
16.2 The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
16.3 The Genetic Code
16.4 What Are the Types and Consequences of Mutation?
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
17 Transcription, RNA Processing, and Translation
17.1 An Overview of Transcription
Initiation: How Does Transcription Begin in Bacteria?
Bacterial Promoters
Events inside the Holoenzyme
Elongation and Termination
Transcription in Eukaryotes
17.2 mRNA Processing in Eukaryotes
The Startling Discovery of Split Eukaryotic Genes
RNA Splicing
Adding Caps and Tails to Transcripts
17.3 An Introduction to Translation
Ribosomes Are the Site of Protein Synthesis
Translation in Bacteria and Eukaryotes
How Does an mRNA Codon Specify an Amino Acid?
17.4 The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
What Do tRNAs Look Like?
How Are Amino Acids Attached to tRNAs?
How Many tRNAs Are There?
17.5 The Structure of Ribosomes and Their Function in Translation
Initiating Translation
Elongation: Extending the Polypeptide
Is the Ribosome a Protein-Based Enzyme or a Ribozyme?
Moving Down the mRNA
Terminating Translation
Post-Translational Modifications
Folding
Chemical Modifications
Chapter 17 Review
17.1 An Overview of Transcription
17.2 mRNA Processing in Eukaryotes
17.3 An Introduction to Translation
17.4 The Structure and Function of Transfer RNA
17.5 The Structure of Ribosomes and Their Function in Translation
Test Your Knowledge
Test Your Understanding
Test Your Problem-Solving Skills
Students
Professors
18 Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria
18.1 An Overview of Gene Regulation and Information Flow
Mechanisms of Regulation
Metabolizing Lactose—A Model System
18.2 Identifying Regulated Genes
18.3 Negative Control of Transcription
The Operon Model
How Does Glucose Regulate the lac Operon?
Inducer Exclusion
Regulation of CAP
Why Has the lac Operon Model Been So Important?
18.4 Positive Control of Transcription
18.5 Global Gene Regulation
Chapter 18 Review
18.1 An Overview of Gene Regulation and Information Flow
18.2 Identifying Regulated Genes
18.3 Negative Control of Transcription
18.4 Positive Control of Transcription
18.5 Global Gene Regulation
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19 Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes
19.1 Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes—An Overview
19.2 Chromatin Remodelling
What Is Chromatin’s Basic Structure?
Evidence that Chromatin Structure Is Altered in Active Genes
How Is Chromatin Altered?
Chromatin-Remodelling Complexes
DNA Methylation
Histone Modification
Chromatin Modifications Can Be Inherited
19.3 Initiating Transcription: Regulatory Sequences and Proteins
Promoter-Proximal Elements Are Regulatory Sequences Near the Core Promoter
Enhancers Are Regulatory Sequences Far from the Core Promoter
The Role of Transcription Factors in Differential Gene Expression
How Do Transcription Factors Recognize Specific DNA Sequences?
A Model for Transcription Initiation
19.4 Post-Transcriptional Control
Alternative Splicing of Primary RNAs
How Is Translation Controlled?
Global Regulation of Translation
Regulation of mRNA Longevity
RNA Interference
Post-Translational Control
Regulating Protein Shape
Regulating Protein Localization
Regulating Protein Recycling
19.5 How Does Gene Expression Compare in Bacteria and Eukaryotes?
19.6 Linking Cancer to Defects in Gene Regulation
The Genetic Basis of Uncontrolled Cell Growth
The p53 Tumour Suppressor: A Case Study
Chapter 19 Review
19.1 Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes—An Overview
19.2 Chromatin Remodelling
19.3 Initiating Transcription: Regulatory Sequences and Proteins
19.4 Post-Transcriptional Control
19.5 How Does Gene Expression Compare in Bacteria and Eukaryotes?
19.6 Linking Cancer to Defects in Gene Regulation
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The Big Picture
20 The Molecular Revolution: Biotechnology and Beyond
20.1 Recombinant DNA Technology
Using Plasmids in Cloning
Using Restriction Endonucleases and DNA Ligase to Cut and Paste DNA
Transformation: Introducing Recombinant Plasmids into Bacterial Cells
Using Reverse Transcriptase to Produce cDNAs
Adding Genes to an Organism
Removing Genes from an Organism
20.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction
Requirements of PCR
DNA Fingerprinting
Short Tandem Repeats
DNA Fingerprinting Using PCR
20.3 DNA Sequencing
Bioinformatics
Which Genomes Are Being Sequenced, and Why?
20.4 Insights from Genome Analysis
The Natural History of Prokaryotic Genomes
Lateral Gene Transfer
The Natural History of Eukaryotic Genomes
Repetitive DNA and Transposable Elements
Gene Families
Insights from the Human Genome Project
Alternative Splicing
Noncoding RNAs
Genomics after Genome Projects
Personalized Genomics
Tumour Cell Sequencing
Direct-to-Consumer Genetic Testing
Barcode of Life Project
20.5 Finding and Engineering Genes
What Were Some of the First Human Genes Found?
The CFTR Gene and Cystic Fibrosis
The HTT Gene and Huntington Disease
The INS Gene and Insulin
How Are Human Genes Found Today?
What Are the Benefits of Finding a Disease Gene?
Improved Understanding of the Phenotype
Transgenic Animal Models of Disease
Genetic Testing
Treating Genetic Conditions
Can Gene Therapy Provide a Cure?
20.6 Metagenomics, Functional Genomics, and Proteomics
What Is Metagenomics?
What Is Functional Genomics?
What Is Proteomics?
Chapter 20 Review
20.1 Recombinant DNA Technology
20.2 The Polymerase Chain Reaction
20.3 DNA Sequencing
20.4 Insights from Genome Analysis
20.5 Finding and Engineering Genes
20.6 Metagenomics, Functional Genomics, and Proteomics
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21 Genes, Development, and Evolution
21.1 Shared Developmental Processes
Cell Division
Cell–Cell Interactions
Cell Differentiation
Cell Movement and Changes in Shape
Programmed Cell Death
21.2 Genetic Equivalence and Differential Gene Expression in Development
Evidence that Differentiated Plant Cells Are Genetically Equivalent
Evidence that Differentiated Animal Cells Are Genetically Equivalent
How Does Differential Gene Expression Occur?
21.3 Regulatory Cascades Establish the Body Plan
Morphogens Set Up the Body Axes
Discovery of the Bicoid Morphogen
The Importance of Morphogen Concentration Gradients
Morphogens in Plant Development
Regulatory Genes Provide Increasingly Specific Positional Information
Genetic Regulatory Cascades
Homeotic Mutants in Animals
Homeotic Mutants in Plants
Regulatory Genes and Signalling Molecules Are Evolutionarily Conserved
Conservation of Hox Gene Organization
Conservation of Hox Gene Function
21.4 Changes in Developmental Gene Expression Drive Evolutionary Change
Chapter 21 Review
21.1 Shared Developmental Processes
21.2 Genetic Equivalence and Differential Gene Expression in Development
21.3 Regulatory Cascades Establish the Body Plan
21.4 Changes in Developmental Gene Expression Drive Evolutionary Change
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Unit 4 Evolutionary Patterns and Processes
22 Evolution by Natural Selection
22.1 The Evolution of Evolutionary Thought
Plato and Typological Thinking
Aristotle and the Scale of Nature
Lamarck and the Idea of Evolution as Change through Time
Darwin and Wallace and Evolution by Natural Selection
22.2 The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed, and Are They Related?
Evidence for Change through Time
The Vastness of Geologic Time
Extinction Changes the Species Present over Time
Transitional Features Link Older and Younger Species
Vestigial Traits Are Evidence of Change through Time
Current Examples of Change through Time
Evidence of Descent from a Common Ancestor
Similar Species Are Found in the Same Geographic Area
Homology Is Evidence of Descent from a Common Ancestor
Current Examples of Descent from a Common Ancestor
Evolution’s “Internal Consistency”—The Importance of Independent Data Sets
22.3 The Process of Evolution: How Does Natural Selection Work?
Darwin’s Inspiration
Darwin’s Four Postulates
The Biological Definitions of Fitness and Adaptation
22.4 Evolution in Action: Recent Research on Natural Selection
Case Study 1: How Did Mycobacterium tuberculosis Become Resistant to Antibiotics?
A Patient History
A Mutation in a Bacterial Gene Confers Resistance
Testing Darwin’s Postulates
Drug Resistance: A Widespread Problem
Selection Due to Human Predation
Case Study 2: Why Do Beak Sizes and Shapes Vary in Galápagos Finches?
Selection during Drought Conditions
Continued Changes in the Environment, Continued Selection, Continued Evolution
Which Genes Are Under Selection?
22.5 Common Misconceptions about Natural Selection and Adaptation
Natural Selection Does Not Change Individuals
Natural Selection Is Not “Lamarckian” Inheritance
Acclimatization Is Not Adaptation
Evolution Is Not Goal Directed
Evolution Is Not Progressive
There Is No Such Thing as a Higher or Lower Organism
Limitations of Natural Selection
Traits Are Not Always Adaptive
Traits Are Genetically Constrained
Fitness Trade-Offs Exist
Traits Are Historically Constrained
Traits Are Environmentally Constrained
Chapter 22 Review
22.1 The Evolution of Evolutionary Thought
22.2 The Pattern of Evolution: Have Species Changed, and Are They Related?
22.3 The Process of Evolution: How Does Natural Selection Work?
22.4 Evolution in Action: Recent Research on Natural Selection
22.5 Common Misconceptions about Natural Selection and Adaptation
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23 Evolutionary Processes
23.1 Analyzing Change in Allele Frequencies: The Hardy–Weinberg Principle
The Gene Pool Concept
Deriving the Hardy–Weinberg Principle
The Hardy–Weinberg Model Makes Important Assumptions
How Does the Hardy–Weinberg Principle Serve as a Null Hypothesis?
Case Study 1: Are MN Blood Types in Humans in Hardy–Weinberg Proportions?
Case Study 2: Are HLA Alleles in Humans in Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium?
23.2 Natural Selection
How Does Selection Affect Genetic Variation?
Mode 1: Directional Selection
Directional Selection Tends to Reduce Genetic Variation
Directional Selection on Body Size in Cliff Swallows
Countervailing Selection and Fitness Trade-Offs
Mode 2: Stabilizing Selection
Mode 3: Disruptive Selection
Disruptive Selection on Beak Size in Black-Bellied Seedcrackers
Disruptive Selection Can Lead to Formation of New Species
Mode 4: Balancing Selection
23.3 Genetic Drift
Simulation Studies of Genetic Drift
Computer Simulations
Key Points about Genetic Drift
Experimental Studies of Genetic Drift
What Causes Genetic Drift in Natural Populations?
Founder Effects on the Green Iguanas of Anguilla
Genetic Bottleneck On Pingelap Atoll
23.4 Gene Flow
Measuring Gene Flow between Populations
Gene Flow Is Random with Respect to Fitness
23.5 Mutation
Mutation as an Evolutionary Mechanism
Experimental Studies of Mutation
Experimental Evolution
Fitness Increased in Fits and Starts
Studies of Mutation in Natural Populations
Lateral Gene Transfer
Gene Duplication, Diversification, and Deletion
Take-Home Messages
23.6 Nonrandom Mating
Inbreeding
How Does Inbreeding Affect Allele Frequencies and Genotype Frequencies?
How Does Inbreeding Influence Evolution?
Assortative Mating
Sexual Selection
Theory: The Fundamental Asymmetry of Sex
Female Choice for “Good Alleles”
Male–Male Competition
Sexual Dimorphism Results from Sexual Selection
Take-Home Messages
Chapter 23 Review
23.1 Analyzing Change in Allele Frequencies: The Hardy–Weinberg Principle
23.2 Natural Selection
23.3 Genetic Drift
23.4 Gene Flow
23.5 Mutation
23.6 Nonrandom Mating
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24 Speciation
24.1 How Are Species Defined and Identified?
The Biological Species Concept
The Morphospecies Concept
The Ecological Species Concept
The Phylogenetic Species Concept
Species Definitions in Action: The Case of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow
24.2 Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry
Allopatric Speciation by Dispersal
Allopatric Speciation by Vicariance
24.3 Isolation and Divergence in Sympatry
Sympatric Speciation by Disruptive Selection
Sympatric Speciation by Polyploidization
Autopolyploidy
Allopolyploidy
Why Is Speciation by Polyploidy so Common in Plants?
24.4 What Happens When Isolated Populations Come into Contact?
Reinforcement
Hybrid Zones
New Species through Hybridization
Chapter 24 Review
24.1 How Are Species Defined and Identified?
24.2 Isolation and Divergence in Allopatry
24.3 Isolation and Divergence in Sympatry
24.4 What Happens When Isolated Populations Come into Contact?
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25 Phylogenies and the History of Life
25.1 Tools for Studying History: Phylogenetic Trees
How Do Biologists Estimate Phylogenies?
Creating the Data Matrix
Using the Data Matrix to Estimate a Tree
How Can Biologists Distinguish Homology from Homoplasy?
Are the Flowers of Water Lilies and Wild Roses Homologous or Convergent?
Are Streamlined Bodies in Dolphins and Ichthyosaurs Homologous or Convergent?
Whale Evolution: A Case Study
Data Set 1: A Phylogeny Based on Morphological Traits
Data Set 2: A Phylogeny Based on DNA Sequence Data
Data Set 3: Transposable Elements
Conclusion: Whales Are Closely Related to Hippos
25.2 Tools for Studying History: The Fossil Record
How Do Fossils Form?
Fossilization Is a Rare Event
Limitations of the Fossil Record
Habitat Bias
Taxonomic and Tissue Bias
Temporal Bias
Abundance Bias
Life’s Time Line
Precambrian
Phanerozoic Eon
25.3 Adaptive Radiation
Why Do Adaptive Radiations Occur?
Ecological Opportunity
Morphological, Physiological, or Behavioural Innovation
The Cambrian Explosion
Early Animal Fossils
What Triggered the Cambrian Explosion?
25.4 Mass Extinction
How Do Mass Extinctions Differ from Background Extinctions?
The End-Permian Extinction
The End-Cretaceous Extinction
Evidence for the Impact Hypothesis
Selectivity of the Extinctions
Recovery from the Extinction
The Sixth Mass Extinction?
Chapter 25 Review
25.1 Tools for Studying History: Phylogenetic Trees
25.2 Tools for Studying History: The Fossil Record
25.3 Adaptive Radiation
25.4 Mass Extinction
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The Big Picture
Unit 5 The Diversification of Life
26 Bacteria and Archaea
26.1 Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
Biological Impact
Abundance
Habitat Diversity
Some Prokaryotes Thrive in Extreme Environments
Medical Importance
Koch’s Postulates
The Germ Theory
What Makes Some Bacterial Cells Pathogenic?
Some Pathogenic Bacteria Produce Resistant Endospores
The Past, Present, and Future of Antibiotics
Role in Bioremediation
26.2 How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
Using Enrichment Cultures
Using Metagenomics
Investigating the Human Microbiome
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
26.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea?
Genetic Variation through Gene Transfer
Morphological Diversity
Size, Shape, and Motility
Cell-Wall Composition
Metabolic Diversity
Producing ATP through Cellular Respiration: Variation in Electron Donors and Acceptors
Producing ATP Via Fermentation: Variation in Substrates
Producing ATP Via Photophosphorylation: Variation in Electron Sources and Pigments
Obtaining Building-Block Compounds: Variation in Pathways for Fixing Carbon
Ecological Diversity and Global Impacts
The Oxygen Revolution
Nitrogen Fixation and the Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrate Pollution
26.4 Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea
Bacteria
Actinobacteria
Chlamydiae
Cyanobacteria
Firmicutes
Proteobacteria
Spirochaetes (Spirochetes)
Archaea
Crenarchaeota
Euryarchaeota
Thaumarchaeota
Chapter 26 Review
26.1 Why Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
26.2 How Do Biologists Study Bacteria and Archaea?
26.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Bacteria and Archaea?
26.4 Key Lineages of Bacteria and Archaea
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27 Protists
27.1 Why Do Biologists Study Protists?
Impacts on Human Health and Welfare
Malaria
Harmful Algal Blooms
Ecological Importance of Protists
Protists Play a Key Role in Aquatic Food Chains
Could Protists Help Limit Global Climate Change?
27.2 How Do Biologists Study Protists?
Microscopy: Studying Cell Structure
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
Discovering New Lineages via Direct Sequencing
27.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists?
What Morphological Innovations Evolved in Protists?
The Nuclear Envelope
Endosymbiosis and the Origin of the Mitochondrion
Endosymbiosis and the Origin of Chloroplasts
Structures for Support and Protection
Multicellularity
How Do Protists Obtain Food?
Ingestive Feeding
Absorptive Feeding
Photosynthesis
How Do Protists Move?
How Do Protists Reproduce?
Sexual versus Asexual Reproduction
Life Cycles—Haploid Dominated versus Diploid Dominated
Life Cycles—Alternation of Generations
27.4 Key Lineages of Protists
Amoebozoa
Excavata
Plantae
Rhizaria
Alveolata
Stramenopila (Heterokonta)
Chapter 27 Review
27.1 Why Do Biologists Study Protists?
27.2 How Do Biologists Study Protists?
27.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Protists?
27.4 Key Lineages of Protists
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28 Green Algae and Land Plants
28.1 Why Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants?
Plants Provide Ecosystem Services
Plants Produce Oxygen
Plants Build and Hold Soil
Plants Hold Water and Moderate Climate
Plants as Primary Producers
Plants Provide Humans with Food, Fuel, Fibre, Building Materials, and Medicines
Food
Fuel
Fibre and Building Materials
Pharmaceuticals
28.2 How Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants?
Analyzing Morphological Traits
Similarities between Green Algae and Land Plants
Major Morphological Differences among Land Plants
Using the Fossil Record
Origin of Land Plants
Silurian–Devonian Explosion
The Carboniferous Period
Diversification of Gymnosperms
Diversification of Angiosperms
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
28.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Land Plants?
The Transition to Land, I: How Did Plants Adapt to Dry Conditions with Intense Sunlight?
Preventing Water Loss: Cuticle and Stomata
Providing Protection from UV Irradiation
The Importance of Upright Growth
The Origin of Vascular Tissue
Elaboration of Vascular Tissue: Tracheids and Vessels
Mapping Evolutionary Changes on the Phylogenetic Tree
The Transition to Land, II: How Do Plants Reproduce in Dry Conditions?
Desiccation-Resistant Spores
Protective, Complex Reproductive Organs
Embryos Nourished by Parental Tissues
Alternation of Generations
The Gametophyte-Dominant-to-Sporophyte-Dominant Trend in Life Cycles
Heterospory
Pollen
Seeds
Flowers
Pollination by Insects and Other Animals
Fruits
The Angiosperm Radiation
28.4 Key Lineages of Green Algae and Land Plants
Green Algae
Nonvascular Plants
Seedless Vascular Plants
Seed Plants: Gymnosperms and Angiosperms
Chapter 28 Review
28.1 Why Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants?
28.2 How Do Biologists Study Green Algae and Land Plants?
28.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Land Plants?
28.4 Key Lineages of Green Algae and Land Plants
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29 Fungi
29.1 Why Do Biologists Study Fungi?
Fungi Have Important Economic and Ecological Impacts
Mycorrhizal Fungi Provide Nutrients for Land Plants
Saprophytic Fungi Accelerate the Carbon Cycle on Land
29.2 How Do Biologists Study Fungi?
Analyzing Morphological Traits
The Nature of the Fungal Mycelium
The Nature of Hyphae
Mycelia Have a Large Surface Area
Reproductive Structures
Evaluating Molecular Phylogenies
Fungi Are Closely Related to Animals
What Are the Relationships among the Major Fungal Groups?
29.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Fungi?
Fungi Often Participate in Symbioses
Ectomycorrhizal Fungi (EMF)
Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (AMF)
Endophytes
Other Symbioses
What Adaptations Make Fungi Such Effective Decomposers?
Extracellular Digestion
Lignin Degradation
Cellulose Digestion
Variation in Reproduction
Spores as Key Reproductive Cells
Multiple Mating Types
How Does Fertilization Occur?
Asexual Reproduction
Four Major Types of Life Cycles
Chytrid Life Cycle
Zygomycete Life Cycle
Basidiomycete Life Cycle
Ascomycete Life Cycle
29.4 Key Lineages of Fungi
Microsporidia
Chytrids
Zygomycetes
Glomeromycota
Basidiomycota
Ascomycota
Chapter 29 Review
29.1 Why Do Biologists Study Fungi?
29.2 How Do Biologists Study Fungi?
29.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Fungi?
29.4 Key Lineages of Fungi
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30 An Introduction to Animals
30.1 What Is an Animal?
30.2 What Key Innovations Occurred during the Origin of Animal Phyla?
Origin of Multicellularity
Fossil Evidence for the Sponges-First Hypothesis
Morphological Evidence for the Sponges-First Hypothesis
Molecular Evidence for the Sponges-First Hypothesis
Alternative Views: The Ctenophores-First Hypothesis
Insights from the Origin-of-Animals Debate
Origin of Embryonic Tissue Layers and Muscle
Origin of Embryonic Tissue Layers
Origin of Muscle
Origin of Bilateral Symmetry, Cephalization, and the Nervous System
Homology or Convergent Evolution?
Origin of the Nervous System
Origin of the Coelom
Origin of Protostomes and Deuterostomes
Origin of Segmentation
30.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals within Phyla?
Sensory Organs
Feeding
What Animals Eat: Diversification of Ecological Roles
How Animals Feed: Four General Strategies
Movement
Reproduction
Asexual or Sexual Reproduction?
Where Does Fertilization Occur?
Where Do Embryos Develop?
Life Cycles
30.4 Key Lineages of Animals: Non-Bilaterian Groups
Porifera (Sponges)
Ctenophora (Comb Jellies)
Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Anemones, Hydroids)
Chapter 30 Review
30.1 What Is an Animal?
30.2 What Key Innovations Occurred during the Origin of Animal Phyla?
30.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Animals within Phyla?
30.4 Key Lineages of Animals: Non-Bilaterian Groups
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31 Protostome Animals
31.1 What Is a Protostome?
The Water-to-Land Transition
Modular Body Plans
31.2 What Is a Lophotrochozoan?
What Is a Flatworm?
What Is a Segmented Worm?
What Is a Mollusk?
The Foot Is a Muscular Hydrostat
The Visceral Mass Separates Internal Organs from the Hydrostatic Skeleton
The Mantle Has Diverse Functions
31.3 What Is an Ecdysozoan?
What Is a Nematode?
What Are Tardigrades and Velvet Worms?
What Is an Arthropod?
The Arthropod Body Plan
Why Has the Arthropod Body Plan Been So Successful?
Origin of the Wing
Arthropod Diversity
Myriapods Have Long, Segmented Trunks
Insects Have Three Tagmata, Unbranched Appendages, and One Pair of Antennae
Crustaceans Have Two or Three Tagmata, Branched Appendages, and Two Pairs of Antennae
Chelicerates Have Two Tagmata and Chelicerae
New Phylogeny of Arthropods
Arthropod Metamorphosis
Two Types of Insect Metamorphosis
What Is the Adaptive Significance of Metamorphosis?
Chapter 31 Review
31.1 What Is a Protostome?
31.2 What Is a Lophotrochozoan?
31.3 What Is an Ecdysozoan?
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32 Deuterostome Animals
32.1 What Is an Echinoderm?
The Echinoderm Body Plan
Echinoderms Are Important Consumers
Sea Stars Are Carnivores
Sea Urchins Are Herbivores
32.2 What Is a Chordate?
The Cephalochordates
The Urochordates
The Vertebrates
32.3 What Is a Vertebrate?
32.4 What Key Innovations Occurred during the Evolution of Vertebrates?
Urochordates: Outgroup to Vertebrates
First Vertebrates: Origin of the Cranium and Vertebrae
Fossil Evidence for Early Vertebrates
The Hagfish Hypothesis for Early Vertebrates
Gnathostomes: Origin of the Vertebrate Jaw
Fossil Evidence for the Origin of the Jaw
The Gill-Arch Hypothesis for the Origin of the Jaw
Origin of the Bony Endoskeleton
Tetrapods: Origin of the Limb
Limbs-from-Fins Hypothesis
Amphibians
Amniotes: Origin of the Amniotic Egg
Mammals: Origin of Lactation and Fur
Reptiles: Origin of Scales and Feathers Made of Keratin
Parental Care
Take-Home Messages
32.5 The Primates and Hominins
The Primates
What Makes a Primate a Primate?
What Makes a Great Ape a Great Ape?
Fossil Humans
Gracile Australopithecines
Robust Australopithecines
Early Homo
Recent Homo
What Can Be Deduced from the Hominin Fossil Record?
The Out-of-Africa Hypothesis
Fossil Evidence
Molecular Evidence
Have Humans Stopped Evolving?
Chapter 32 Review
32.1 What Is an Echinoderm?
32.2 What Is a Chordate?
32.3 What Is a Vertebrate?
32.4 What Key Innovations Occurred during the Evolution of Vertebrates?
32.5 The Primates and Hominins
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33 Viruses
33.1 Why Do Biologists Study Viruses?
Viruses Shape the Evolution of Organisms
Viruses Cause Disease
Current Viral Pandemics in Humans: AIDS
How Does HIV Cause AIDS?
What Is the Scope of the AIDS Pandemic?
33.2 How Do Biologists Study Viruses?
Analyzing Morphological Traits
Analyzing the Genetic Material
Analyzing the Phases of Replicative Growth
How Do Viruses Enter a Cell?
How Do Viruses Produce Proteins?
How Do Viruses Copy Their Genomes?
How Are New Virions Assembled?
How Do Progeny Virions Exit an Infected Cell?
How Are Virions Transmitted to New Hosts?
Analyzing How Viruses Coexist with Host Cells
33.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Viruses?
Where Did Viruses Come From?
Origin in Plasmids and Transposable Elements?
Origin in Symbiotic Bacteria?
Origin at the Origin of Life?
Emerging Viruses, Emerging Diseases
Some Emerging Viruses Arise from Genome Reassortment
Using Phylogenetic Trees to Understand Emerging Viruses
Responding to a Virus Outbreak
33.4 Key Lineages of Viruses
Chapter 33 Review
33.1 Why Do Biologists Study Viruses?
33.2 How Do Biologists Study Viruses?
33.3 What Themes Occur in the Diversification of Viruses?
33.4 Key Lineages of Viruses
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The Big Picture
Unit 6 How Plants Work
34 Plant Form and Function
34.1 Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations
The Importance of Surface Area/Volume Relationships
The Root System
Morphological Diversity in Root Systems
Phenotypic Plasticity in Root Systems
Modified Roots
The Shoot System
Morphological Diversity in Shoot Systems
Phenotypic Plasticity in Shoot Systems
Modified Stems
The Leaf
Morphological Diversity in Leaves
Phenotypic Plasticity in Leaves
Modified Leaves
34.2 Plant Cells and Tissue Systems
The Dermal Tissue System
Epidermal Cells Protect the Surface
Stomata Regulate Gas Exchange and Water Loss
Trichomes Perform an Array of Functions
The Ground Tissue System
Parenchyma Consists of “Workhorse” Cells
Collenchyma Functions Primarily in Shoot Support
Sclerenchyma: Two Types of Specialized Support Cells
The Vascular Tissue System
Xylem Structure
Phloem Structure
34.3 Primary Growth Extends the Plant Body
How Do Apical Meristems Produce the Primary Plant Body?
How Is the Primary Root System Organized?
How Is the Primary Shoot System Organized?
34.4 Secondary Growth Widens Shoots and Roots
What Is a Cambium?
How Does a Cambium Initiate Secondary Growth?
What Do Vascular Cambia Produce?
What Do Cork Cambia Produce?
The Structure of Tree Trunks
Heartwood and Sapwood
Annual Growth Rings
Chapter 34 Review
34.1 Plant Form: Themes with Many Variations
34.2 Plant Cells and Tissue Systems
34.3 Primary Growth Extends the Plant Body
34.4 Secondary Growth Widens Shoots and Roots
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35 Water and Sugar Transport in Plants
35.1 Water Potential and Water Movement
What Is Water Potential?
What Factors Affect Water Potential?
The Role of Solute Potential
The Role of Pressure Potential
Working with Water Potentials
Water Movement in the Absence of Pressure
Water Movement in the Presence of a Solute Potential and Pressure Potential
Water Potentials in Soils, Plants, and the Atmosphere
Water Potential in Soils
How Are Some Plants Specialized for Salty or Dry Habitats?
Water Potential in Air
35.2 How Does Water Move from Roots to Shoots?
Movement of Water and Solutes into the Root
Three Routes through Root Cortex to Xylem
The Role of the Casparian Strip
Water Movement via Root Pressure
Water Movement via Capillary Action
The Cohesion-Tension Theory
The Role of Surface Tension in Water Transport
Creating a Water Potential Gradient
The Importance of Secondary Cell Walls
What Evidence Do Biologists Have for the Cohesion-Tension Theory?
35.3 Plant Features That Reduce Water Loss
Limiting Water Loss
Obtaining Carbon Dioxide under Water Stress
35.4 Translocation of Sugars
Tracing Connections between Sources and Sinks
The Anatomy of Phloem
The Pressure-Flow Hypothesis
Creating High Pressure Near Sources and Low Pressure Near Sinks
Testing the Pressure-Flow Model
Phloem Loading
How Are Sucrose and Other Solutes Transported across Membranes?
How Are Sugars Concentrated in Sieve-Tube Elements at Sources?
Phloem Unloading
Chapter 35 Review
35.1 Water Potential and Water Movement
35.2 How Does Water Move from Roots to Shoots?
35.3 Plant Features That Reduce Water Loss
35.4 Translocation of Sugars
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36 Plant Nutrition
36.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants
Which Nutrients Are Essential?
Macronutrients
Micronutrients
What Happens When Key Nutrients Are in Short Supply?
36.2 Soil: A Dynamic Mixture of Living and Nonliving Components
The Importance of Soil Conservation
What Factors Affect Nutrient Availability?
The Role of Ionic Charge and Soil Texture
The Role of Soil pH
36.3 Nutrient Uptake
Mechanisms of Nutrient Uptake
Establishing a Proton Gradient
Using a Proton Gradient to Import Cations
Using a Proton Gradient to Import Anions
Nutrient Transfer via Mycorrhizal Fungi
Mechanisms of Ion Exclusion
Passive Exclusion
Active Exclusion by Metallothioneins and Phytochelatins
Active Exclusion by Antiporters
36.4 Nitrogen Fixation
The Role of Symbiotic Bacteria
How Do Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria Infect Plant Roots?
36.5 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
Parasitic Plants
Epiphytic Plants
Carnivorous Plants
Modified Leaves Form an Array of Trapping Mechanisms
Costs and Benefits of Carnivory
Chapter 36 Review
36.1 Nutritional Requirements of Plants
36.2 Soil: A Dynamic Mixture of Living and Nonliving Components
36.3 Nutrient Uptake
36.4 Nitrogen Fixation
36.5 Nutritional Adaptations of Plants
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37 Plant Sensory Systems, Signals, and Responses
37.1 Information Processing in Plants
How Do Cells Receive and Process an External Signal?
How Do Cells Respond to Cell–Cell Signals?
37.2 Blue Light: The Phototropic Response
Phototropins as Blue-Light Receptors
Auxin as the Phototropic Hormone
Isolating and Characterizing Auxin
The Cholodny–Went Hypothesis
The Cell Elongation Response
37.3 Red and Far-Red Light: Germination, Stem Elongation, and Flowering
The Red/Far-Red “Switch”
Phytochrome Is a Red/Far-Red Receptor
Signals That Promote Flowering
Responding to Changes in Photoperiod
Discovery of the Flowering Hormone
37.4 Gravity: The Gravitropic Response
The Statolith Hypothesis
Auxin as the Gravitropic Signal
37.5 How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch?
Changes in Growth Patterns
Movement Responses
37.6 Youth, Maturity, and Aging: The Growth Responses
Auxin and Apical Dominance
Polar Transport of Auxin
What Is Auxin’s Overall Role?
Cytokinins and Cell Division
The Discovery of Cytokinins
How Do Cytokinins Promote Cell Division?
Gibberellins and ABA: Growth and Dormancy
The Discovery of Gibberellins
Defective Gibberellin Genes Cause Dwarfing
Gibberellins and ABA Interact during Seed Dormancy and Germination
ABA Closes Guard Cells in Stomata
The Molecular Mechanism of Guard-Cell Closure
Brassinosteroids and Body Size
Ethylene and Senescence
The Discovery of Ethylene
Ethylene and Fruit Ripening
Ethylene and Leaf Abscission
An Overview of Plant Growth Regulators
37.7 Pathogens and Herbivores: The Defence Responses
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Pathogens?
An Evolutionary Arms Race
The Hypersensitive Response
An Alarm Hormone Extends the HR
How Do Plants Sense and Respond to Herbivore Attack?
The Role of Proteinase Inhibitors
The Discovery of Systemin
“Talking Trees”: Responses from Nearby Plants
Pheromones Released from Plant Wounds Recruit Help from Wasps
Chapter 37 Review
37.1 Information Processing in Plants
37.2 Blue Light: The Phototropic Response
37.3 Red and Far-Red Light: Germination, Stem Elongation, and Flowering
37.4 Gravity: The Gravitropic Response
37.5 How Do Plants Respond to Wind and Touch?
37.6 Youth, Maturity, and Aging: The Growth Responses
37.7 Pathogens and Herbivores: The Defence Responses
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38 Plant Reproduction and Development
38.1 An Introduction to Plant Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Sexual Reproduction and the Plant Life Cycle
38.2 Reproductive Structures
The General Structure of the Flower
Sepals Form an Outer, Protective Whorl
Petals Furnish a Visual Advertisement
Stamens Produce Pollen
Carpels Produce Ovules
The “Sex” of Flowers Varies
How Are Female Gametophytes Produced?
How Are Male Gametophytes Produced?
38.3 Pollination and Fertilization
Pollination
Selfing versus Outcrossing: Costs and Benefits
Pollination Syndromes
Why Did Pollination Evolve?
Does Pollination by Animals Encourage Speciation?
Fertilization
38.4 Seeds and Fruits
The Role of Drying in Seed Maturation
Fruit Development and Seed Dispersal
Fruit Structure
Fruit Function
Seed Dormancy
How Do Hormones Regulate Dormancy?
How Is Dormancy Broken?
Seed Germination
38.5 Embryogenesis and Vegetative Development
Embryogenesis
Meristem Formation
Which Genes Determine Body Axes in the Plant Embryo?
Which Genes Determine Leaf Structure and Shape?
38.6 Reproductive Development
The Floral Meristem and the Flower
The Genetic Control of Flower Structures
The ABC Model
Testing the Model
Plant Tool-kit Genes
Chapter 38 Review
38.1 An Introduction to Plant Reproduction
38.2 Reproductive Structures
38.3 Pollination and Fertilization
38.4 Seeds and Fruits
38.5 Embryogenesis and Vegetative Development
38.6 Reproductive Development
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The Big Picture
Unit 7 How Animals Work
39 Animal Form and Function
39.1 Form, Function, and Adaptation
The Role of Fitness Trade-Offs
Adaptation and Acclimatization
39.2 Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function?
Structure–Function Relationships at the Molecular and Cellular Levels
Tissues Are Groups of Cells That Function as a Unit
Connective Tissue
Nervous Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Epithelial Tissues
Organs and Organ Systems
39.3 How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology?
Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Theory
Surface Area/Volume Relationships: Data
Comparing Mice and Elephants
Changes during Development
Adaptations That Increase Surface Area
39.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis: General Principles
Homeostasis Is Achieved via Regulation
Why Is Homeostasis Important?
The Role of Regulation and Feedback
39.5 Thermoregulation: A Closer Look
Mechanisms of Heat Exchange
Thermoregulatory Strategies
Comparing Endothermy and Ectothermy
Countercurrent Heat Exchangers
Chapter 39 Review
39.1 Form, Function, and Adaptation
39.2 Tissues, Organs, and Systems: How Does Structure Correlate with Function?
39.3 How Does Body Size Affect Animal Physiology?
39.4 Homeostasis
39.5 Thermoregulation: A Closer Look
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40 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Animals
40.1 Osmoregulation and Excretion
What Is Osmotic Stress?
Osmotic Stress in Seawater, in Freshwater, and on Land
How Do Electrolytes and Water Move across Cell Membranes?
Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Impact on Water Balance
Forms of Nitrogenous Waste Vary among Species
Why Do Nitrogenous Wastes Vary among Species?
40.2 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Marine Fishes
Osmoconformation versus Osmoregulation in Marine Fishes
How Do Sharks Excrete Salt?
The Role of Na+/K+-ATPase
A Molecular Model for Salt Excretion
40.3 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Freshwater Fishes
How Do Freshwater Fishes Osmoregulate?
Salmon and Sea Bass as Model Systems
A Freshwater Chloride Cell?
40.4 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects
How Do Insects Minimize Water Loss from the Body Surface?
The Malpighian Tubules Allow Insects to Make Concentrated Urine
Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: An Overview
40.5 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Vertebrates
The Structure of the Mammalian Kidney
The Function of the Mammalian Kidney: An Overview
Filtration: The Renal Corpuscle
Reabsorption: The Proximal Tubule
Active Transport Occurs in Epithelial Cells
Ion and Water Movement Is Driven by a Concentration Gradient in the Interstitial Fluid
Creating an Osmotic Gradient: The Loop of Henle
Testing Kuhn’s Hypothesis
How Is the Osmotic Gradient Established?
A Comprehensive View of the Loop of Henle
The Vasa Recta Removes Water and Solutes That Leave the Loop of Henle
The Collecting Duct Leaks Urea
Regulating Water and Electrolyte Balance: The Distal Tubule and Collecting Duct
Urine Formation Is under Hormonal Control
How Does ADH Work?
Urine Formation in Nonmammalian Vertebrates
Chapter 40 Review
40.1 Osmoregulation and Excretion
40.2 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Marine Fishes
40.3 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Freshwater Fishes
40.4 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Insects
40.5 Water and Electrolyte Balance in Terrestrial Vertebrates
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41 Animal Nutrition
41.1 Nutritional Requirements
Defining Human Nutritional Requirements
Meeting Human Nutritional Requirements
41.2 Capturing Food: The Structure and Function of Mouthparts
Mouthparts as Adaptations
A Case Study: The Cichlid Throat Jaw
Detecting the Nutritional Value of Food
41.3 How Are Nutrients Digested and Absorbed?
An Introduction to the Digestive Tract
An Overview of Digestive Processes
The Mouth and Esophagus
Digestion Starts in the Mouth
Peristalsis Moves Material Down the Esophagus
A Modified Esophagus: The Bird Crop
The Stomach
The Stomach as a Site of Protein Digestion
Which Cells Produce Stomach Acid?
How Do Parietal Cells Secrete HCl?
Ulcers as an Infectious Disease
The Ruminant Stomach
The Avian Gizzard
The Small Intestine
Folding and Projections Increase Surface Area
Protein Processing by Pancreatic Enzymes
What Regulates the Release of Pancreatic Enzymes?
How Are Carbohydrates Digested and Transported?
Digesting Lipids: Bile and Transport
How Is Water Absorbed?
The Large Intestine
Variations in Structure and Function
41.4 Nutritional Homeostasis—Glucose as a Case Study
The Discovery of Insulin
Insulin’s Role in Homeostasis
Diabetes Mellitus Has Two Forms
Chapter 41 Review
41.1 Nutritional Requirements
41.2 Capturing Food: The Structure and Function of Mouthparts
41.3 How Are Nutrients Digested and Absorbed?
41.4 Nutritional Homeostasis—Glucose as a Case Study
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42 Gas Exchange and Circulation
42.1 The Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
42.2 Air and Water as Respiratory Media
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Air?
How Do Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Behave in Water?
What Affects the Amount of Gas in a Solution?
What Affects the Amount of Oxygen Available in an Aquatic Habitat?
42.3 Organs of Gas Exchange
Physical Parameters: The Law of Diffusion
How Do Gills Work?
How Do Fishes Ventilate Their Gills?
The Fish Gill Is a Countercurrent System
How Do Insect Tracheae Work?
How Do Vertebrate Lungs Work?
Lung Structure and Ventilation Vary among Species
Ventilation of the Human Lung
Ventilation of the Bird Lung
Homeostatic Control of Ventilation
42.4 How Are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transported in Blood?
Structure and Function of Hemoglobin
What Is Cooperative Binding?
Why Is Cooperative Binding Important?
How Do pH and Temperature Affect Oxygen Unloading from Hemoglobin?
Oxygen Delivery by Hemoglobin Is Extremely Efficient
Comparing Hemoglobins
CO2 Transport and the Buffering of Blood pH
The Role of Carbonic Anhydrase and Hemoglobin
What Happens When Blood Returns to the Lungs?
42.5 Circulation
What Is an Open Circulatory System?
What Is a Closed Circulatory System?
Which Lineages Have Closed Circulatory Systems?
Types of Blood Vessels
Exchange between Blood Plasma and Interstitial Fluid
The Role of the Lymphatic System
How Does the Heart Work?
Why Did Multichambered Hearts and Multiple Circulations Evolve?
The Human Heart
Electrical Activation of the Heart
The Cardiac Cycle
Patterns in Blood Pressure and Blood Flow
Why Is Regulation of Blood Pressure and Blood Flow Important?
Homeostatic Control of Blood Pressure
Cardiovascular Disease
Chapter 42 Review
42.1 The Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
42.2 Air and Water as Respiratory Media
42.3 Organs of Gas Exchange
42.4 How Are Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transported in Blood?
42.5 Circulation
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43 Animal Nervous Systems
43.1 Principles of Electrical Signalling
Types of Neurons
The Anatomy of a Neuron
An Introduction to Membrane Potentials
Units and Signs
Electrical Potential, Electric Currents, and Electrical Gradients
How Is the Resting Potential Maintained?
The Role of Na+/K+-ATPase
The Role of the K+ Leak Channel
Using Electrodes to Measure Membrane Potentials
What Is an Action Potential?
A Three-Phase Signal
An “All-or-None” Signal That Propagates
43.2 Dissecting the Action Potential
Distinct Ion Currents Are Responsible for Depolarization and Repolarization
How Do Voltage-Gated Channels Work?
Patch Clamping and Studies of Single Channels
Positive Feedback Occurs during Depolarization
Using Neurotoxins to Identify Channels and Dissect Currents
How Is the Action Potential Propagated?
Axon Diameter Affects Speed
Myelination Affects Speed
43.3 The Synapse
Synapse Structure and Neurotransmitter Release
What Do Neurotransmitters Do?
Postsynaptic Potentials
Postsynaptic Potentials Are Graded
Summation and Threshold
43.4 The Vertebrate Nervous System
What Does the Peripheral Nervous System Do?
Functional Anatomy of the CNS
General Anatomy of the Human Brain
Mapping the Brain I: Lesion Studies
Mapping the Brain II: Electrical Stimulation of Conscious Patients
Mapping the Brain III: Optogenetics
How Do Learning and Memory Work?
Recording from Single Neurons during Memory Tasks
Documenting Changes in Synapses
Documenting Changes in Neurons
Chapter 43 Review
43.1 Principles of Electrical Signalling
43.2 Dissecting the Action Potential
43.3 The Synapse
43.4 The Vertebrate Nervous System
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44 Animal Sensory Systems
44.1 How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information to the Brain?
Sensory Transduction
Transmitting Information to the Brain
44.2 Mechanoreception: Sensing Pressure Changes
How Do Sensory Cells Respond to Sound Waves and Other Forms of Pressure?
The Structure of Hair Cells
Signal Transduction in Hair Cells
Hearing: The Mammalian Ear
The Middle Ear Amplifies Sounds
The Cochlea Detects the Frequency of Sounds
Elephants Detect Infrasound
Bats Detect Ultrasound
The Lateral Line System in Fishes and Amphibians
44.3 Photoreception: Sensing Light
The Insect Eye
The Vertebrate Eye
The Structure of the Vertebrate Eye
What Do Rods and Cones Do?
How Do Rods and Cones Detect Light?
Colour Vision: The Puzzle of Dalton’s Eye
Colour Vision: Multiple Opsins
Do Other Animals See Colour?
44.4 Chemoreception: Sensing Chemicals
Taste: Detecting Molecules in the Mouth
Salty and Sour
Why Do Many Different Foods Taste Bitter?
What Is the Molecular Basis of Sweetness and Other Tastes?
Olfaction: Detecting Molecules in the Air
Odorants Provide Information about the Environment
Pheromones Provide Information about Members of the Same Species
44.5 Other Sensory Systems
Thermoreception: Sensing Temperature
Thermoreception Helps Animals Thermoregulate
Pit Vipers Have Extremely Sensitive Thermoreceptors
Electroreception: Sensing Electric Fields
Sharks Use Electroreception to Hunt
Electrogenic Fishes Generate Electric Fields
Magnetoreception: Sensing Magnetic Fields
Chapter 44 Review
44.1 How Do Sensory Organs Convey Information to the Brain?
44.2 Mechanoreception: Sensing Pressure Changes
44.3 Photoreception: Sensing Light
44.4 Chemoreception: Sensing Chemicals
44.5 Other Sensory Systems
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45 Animal Movement
45.1 How Do Muscles Contract?
Early Muscle Experiments
The Sliding-Filament Model
How Do Actin and Myosin Interact?
How Do Neurons Initiate Contraction?
45.2 Muscle Tissues
Smooth Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal Muscle Fibre Types
Skeletal Muscle Fibre Organization
Context of Muscle Contraction
45.3 Skeletal Systems
Hydrostatic Skeletons
Structure
Function
Endoskeletons
Structure
Function: Movement
Function: Calcium Homeostasis
Exoskeletons
Structure
Function
45.4 Locomotion
How Do Biologists Study Locomotion?
How Are the Material Properties of Tissues Important to Locomotion?
How Is Musculoskeletal Structure Adapted for Locomotion?
What Does Locomotion Look Like in Living Animals?
What Forces Are Involved in Locomotion?
What Is the Cost of Locomotion?
Size Matters
Chapter 45 Review
45.1 How Do Muscles Contract?
45.2 Muscle Tissues
45.3 Skeletal Systems
45.4 Locomotion
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46 Chemical Signals in Animals
46.1 Cell-to-Cell Signalling: An Overview
Major Categories of Chemical Signals
Autocrine Signals Act on the Same Cell That Secretes Them
Paracrine Signals Act on Neighbouring Cells
Endocrine Signals Are Hormones
Neural Signals Are Neurotransmitters
Neuroendocrine Signals Act at a Distance
Hormone Signalling Pathways
What Makes Up the Endocrine System?
How Do Researchers Identify a Hormone?
A Breakthrough in Measuring Hormone Levels
46.2 How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells?
Hormone Concentrations Are Low, but Their Effects Are Large
Three Chemical Classes of Hormones
Steroid Hormones Bind to Intracellular Receptors
Identifying the Estradiol Receptor
Documenting Changes in Gene Expression
Polypeptide Hormones Bind to Receptors on the Plasma Membrane
Identifying the Adrenaline Receptor
What Acts as the Second Messenger?
A Phosphorylation Cascade
Why Do Different Target Cells Respond in Different Ways?
46.3 What Do Hormones Do?
How Do Hormones Direct Developmental Processes?
The Role of T3 in Amphibian Metamorphosis
Hormone Interactions Regulate Insect Metamorphosis
Sexual Development and Activity in Vertebrates
How Photoperiod Affects Sex Hormone Release
Some Chemicals Can Disrupt Hormone Signalling
How Do Hormones Coordinate Responses to Stressors?
Short-Term Responses to Stress
Long-Term Responses to Stress
What Does Cortisol Do?
How Are Hormones Involved in Homeostasis?
Insulin, Glucagon, and Blood Glucose Homeostasis
ADH, Aldosterone, and Water and Electrolyte Balance
EPO and Oxygen Availability
46.4 How Is the Production of Hormones Regulated?
The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Controlling the Release of Glucocorticoids
Feedback Inhibition by Glucocorticoids
Patterns in Glucocorticoid Release
The Hypothalamic–Pituitary Axis: An Overview
The Posterior Pituitary
The Anterior Pituitary
Control of Adrenaline by Sympathetic Nerves
Chapter 46 Review
46.1 Cell-to-Cell Signalling: An Overview
46.2 How Do Hormones Act on Target Cells?
46.3 What Do Hormones Do?
46.4 How Is the Production of Hormones Regulated?
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47 Animal Reproduction and Development
47.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
How Does Asexual Reproduction Occur?
Switching Reproductive Modes: A Case History
What Environmental Cues Trigger the Switch?
Why Do Daphnia Switch between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction?
Mechanisms of Sexual Reproduction: Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis in Mammals
Structure and Function of Sperm
Oogenesis in Mammals
Structure and Function of Eggs
47.2 Reproductive Structures and Their Functions
The Male Reproductive System
Internal Anatomy of Human Male Reproductive Organs
The Female Reproductive System
The Reproductive Tract of Female Birds
Anatomy of the Reproductive System in Human Females
47.3 Fertilization and Egg Development
External Fertilization
Internal Fertilization
Sperm Competition and Second Male Advantage
Why Is Testis Size Variable among Species?
How Does External Anatomy Affect Sperm Competition?
The Cell Biology of Fertilization
How Do Gametes from the Same Species Recognize Each Other?
What Prevents More than One Sperm from Entering the Egg?
Why Do Some Females Lay Eggs While Others Give Birth?
47.4 Embryonic Development
Cleavage
Gastrulation
Formation of Germ Layers
Creating Body Axes
Organogenesis
Formation of Notochord, Neural Tube, and Somites
Somites Are Precursors to Skin, Bone, and Muscle
Formation of the Neural Tube and Central Nervous System
47.5 The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian Reproduction
Which Hormones Control Puberty?
Which Hormones Control the Menstrual Cycle in Humans?
How Do Pituitary and Ovarian Hormones Interact during a Menstrual Cycle?
Manipulating Hormone Levels to Prevent Pregnancy
47.6 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals
Gestation and Development in Marsupials
Major Events during Human Pregnancy
Implantation
The First Trimester
The Second and Third Trimesters
How Does the Mother Nourish the Fetus?
Oxygen Exchange between Mother and Fetus
Toxic Chemicals Can Be Transferred from Mother to Fetus
Birth
Chapter 47 Review
47.1 Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
47.2 Reproductive Structures and Their Functions
47.3 Fertilization and Egg Development
47.4 Embryonic Development
47.5 The Role of Sex Hormones in Mammalian Reproduction
47.6 Pregnancy and Birth in Mammals
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48 The Immune System in Animals
48.1 Innate Immunity
Barriers to Entry
How Are Openings in the Body Protected?
How Do Pathogens Gain Entry?
The Innate Immune Response
How Are Pathogens Recognized by the Innate Immune System?
Pattern-Recognition Receptors Transduce Signals
The Inflammatory Response in Humans
48.2 Adaptive Immunity: Recognition
An Introduction to Lymphocytes
The Discovery of B Cells and T Cells
Where Are Lymphocytes Found?
Lymphocytes Recognize a Diverse Array of Antigens
The Discovery of B-Cell Receptors
The Discovery of T-Cell Receptors
Antibodies and Receptors Bind to Epitopes
What Is the Molecular Basis of Antibody Specificity and Diversity?
The Discovery of Gene Recombination
How Does the Immune System Distinguish Self from Nonself?
48.3 Adaptive Immunity: Activation
The Clonal Selection Theory
T-Cell Activation
Antigen Presentation via MHC Proteins
How Are T Cells Activated by Antigen-Presenting Cells?
Cytotoxic T Cells and Helper T Cells
B-Cell Activation and Antibody Secretion
48.4 Adaptive Immunity: Response and Memory
How Are Extracellular Pathogens Eliminated?
How Are Intracellular Pathogens Eliminated?
Why Does the Immune System Reject Foreign Tissues and Organs?
Responding to Future Infections: Immunological Memory
The Secondary Response Is Strong and Fast
Vaccination Leads to Immunological Memory
48.5 What Happens When the Immune System Doesn’t Work Correctly?
Allergies
Autoimmune Diseases
Immunodeficiency Diseases
Chapter 48 Review
48.1 Innate Immunity
48.2 Adaptive Immunity: Recognition
48.3 Adaptive Immunity: Activation
48.4 Adaptive Immunity: Response and Memory
48.5 What Happens When the Immune System Doesn’t Work Correctly?
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The Big Picture
Unit 8 Ecology
49 An Introduction to Ecology
49.1 Levels of Ecological Study
Organismal Ecology
Population Ecology
Community Ecology
Ecosystem Ecology
Global Ecology
Conservation Biology Applies to All Levels of Ecological Study
49.2 What Determines the Distribution and Abundance of Organisms?
Abiotic Factors
Biotic Factors
History Matters: Past Abiotic and Biotic Factors Influence Present Patterns
The Wallace Line: Barriers to Dispersal
The Influence of Humans
Biotic and Abiotic Factors Interact
49.3 Climate Patterns
Why Are the Tropics Warm and the Poles Cold?
Why Are the Tropics Wet?
What Causes Seasonality in Weather?
What Regional Effects Do Mountains and Oceans Have on Climate?
Mountain Ranges
Oceans
49.4 Types of Terrestrial Biomes
Natural Biomes
Anthropogenic Biomes
How Will Global Climate Change Affect Terrestrial Biomes?
49.5 Types of Aquatic Biomes
Salinity
Water Depth and Sunlight Availability
Water Flow
Nutrient Availability
Coastal Runoff
Ocean Upwelling
Lake Turnover
How Are Aquatic Biomes Affected by Humans?
Chapter 49 Review
49.1 Levels of Ecological Study
49.2 What Determines the Distribution and Abundance of Organisms?
49.3 Climate Patterns
49.4 Types of Terrestrial Biomes
49.5 Types of Aquatic Biomes
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50 Behavioural Ecology
50.1 An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology
Proximate and Ultimate Causation
Argentine Ant Behaviour
Proximate Causes
Ultimate Causes
Types of Behaviour: An Overview
Behaviours Vary in Their Flexibility
Behaviours Vary in the Extent to Which They Are Learned
Flexible, Learned Behaviours Often Involve Choice and Trade-offs
50.2 Choosing What, How, and When to Eat
Proximate Causes: Foraging Alleles in Drosophila melanogaster
Ultimate Causes: Optimal Foraging
Introduction to Optimal Foraging
A Test of Optimal Foraging in Desert Gerbils
50.3 Choosing a Mate
Proximate Causes: How Is Sexual Activity Triggered in Anolis Lizards?
Testosterone and Estradiol
Testing the Effects of Light and Social Stimulation
Visual Cues from Males Trigger Female Readiness
Ultimate Causes: Sexual Selection
50.4 Choosing a Place to Live
Proximate Causes: How Do Animals Navigate?
Piloting
Compass Orientation
True Navigation (Map Orientation)
Ultimate Causes: Why Do Animals Migrate?
50.5 Communicating with Others
Proximate Causes: How Do Honeybees Communicate?
Ultimate Causes: Why Do Honeybees Communicate the Way They Do?
When Is Communication Honest or Deceitful?
Deceiving Individuals of Another Species
Deceiving Individuals of the Same Species
50.6 Cooperating with Others
Kin Selection
Hamilton’s Rule
Inclusive Fitness
Testing Hamilton’s Rule
Manipulation
Reciprocal Altruism
Cooperation and Mutualism
Individuals Do Not Act for the Good of the Species
Chapter 50 Review
50.1 An Introduction to Behavioural Ecology
50.2 Choosing What, How, and When to Eat
50.3 Choosing a Mate
50.4 Choosing a Place to Live
50.5 Communicating with Others
50.6 Cooperating with Others
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51 Population Ecology
51.1 Distribution and Abundance
Geographic Distribution
Sampling Methods
51.2 Demography
Life Tables
Zootoca vivipara: A Case Study
Age Class and Number Alive
Survivorship
Fecundity
Reproductive Rate
The Role of Life History
What Are Fitness Trade-Offs?
Life-History Patterns across Species
51.3 Population Growth
Exponential Growth
An Exponential Growth Equation
Graphing Exponential Growth
Exponential Growth Is Density Independent
Logistic Growth
A Logistic Growth Equation
Graphing Logistic Growth
What Factors Limit Population Size?
Density-Dependent Factors
Carrying Capacity Is Not Fixed
51.4 Population Dynamics
Why Do Some Populations Cycle?
Is It Food or Predation?
A Field Experiment
How Do Metapopulations Change through Time?
Metapopulations Should Be Dynamic
An Experimental Test
51.5 Human Population Growth
Age Structure in Human Populations
Age Pyramids
Population “Momentum”
Analyzing Change in the Growth Rate of Human Populations
How Large Is the Current Human Population?
Will Human Population Size Peak in Your Lifetime?
The Role of Fertility Rates
51.6 How Can Population Ecology Help Conserve Biodiversity?
Using Life-Table Data
Making Population Projections
Altering Values for Survivorship and Fecundity
Preserving Metapopulations
Chapter 51 Review
51.1 Distribution and Abundance
51.2 Demography
51.3 Population Growth
51.4 Population Dynamics
51.5 Human Population Growth
51.6 How Can Population Ecology Help Conserve Biodiversity?
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Students
Professors
52 Community Ecology
52.1 Species Interactions
Commensalism
Competition
Using the Niche Concept to Analyze Interspecific Competition
What Happens when One Species Is a Better Competitor?
Experimental Studies of Competition in Nature
Fitness Trade-Offs in Competition
Mechanisms of Coexistence: Niche Differentiation
Consumption
Constitutive Defences
Inducible Defences
Can Parasites Manipulate Their Hosts?
Using Consumers as Biocontrol Agents
Consumption Is an Agent of Natural Selection
Mutualism
Mutualists Are Not Trying to Be “Nice”
Mutualisms Are Dynamic
52.2 Community Structure
Why Are Some Species More Important than Others in Structuring Communities?
Bottom-Up Influences on Community Structure
Top-Down Influences on Community Structure
How Predictable Are Communities?
The Clements–Gleason Dichotomy
An Experimental Test
Mapping Current and Past Species’ Distributions
52.3 Community Dynamics
Disturbance and Change in Ecological Communities
Succession: The Development of Communities after Disturbance
The Role of Species Traits
The Role of Species Interactions
The Role of Chance and History
A Case Study: Glacier Bay, Alaska
52.4 Patterns in Species Richness
Predicting Species Richness: The Theory of Island Biogeography
The Role of Immigration and Extinction
The Role of Island Size and Isolation
Applying the Theory
Global Patterns in Species Richness
Chapter 52 Review
52.1 Species Interactions
52.2 Community Structure
52.3 Community Dynamics
52.4 Patterns in Species Richness
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Students
Professors
53 Ecosystems and Global Ecology
53.1 How Does Energy Flow through Ecosystems?
How Efficient Are Autotrophs at Capturing Solar Energy?
What Happens to the Biomass of Autotrophs?
Trophic Structure: Food Chains and Food Webs
Energy Flow to Grazers versus Decomposers
Energy Transfer between Trophic Levels
The Pyramid of Productivity
Efficiency Varies
Biomagnification
Global Patterns in Productivity
Is Productivity Higher on the Land or in the Sea?
Which Terrestrial Ecosystems Are Most Productive?
Which Marine Ecosystems Are Most Productive?
Which Biomes Are Most Productive?
How Much of Earth’s Total NPP Are Humans Using?
53.2 How Do Nutrients Cycle through Ecosystems?
Nutrient Cycling within Ecosystems
What Factors Control the Rate of Nutrient Cycling?
Sources of Local Nutrient Export and Import
Global Biogeochemical Cycles
The Global Water Cycle
The Global Nitrogen Cycle
The Global Phosphorus Cycle
The Global Carbon Cycle
53.3 Global Climate Change
What Is the Cause of Global Climate Change?
The Greenhouse Effect
Why Is the Climate Changing So Rapidly?
How Much Will the Climate Change?
Average Temperature
Temperature Variation
Effects of Climate Change on the Water Cycle
Documenting Positive and Negative Feedback
Biological Effects of Climate Change
Geographic Range Shifts
Phenology Shifts
Evolutionary Adaptation
Extinctions
Ocean Acidification
Biological Effects Interact in Ecosystems
Consequences to Net Primary Productivity
How Is NPP Changing on Land?
How Is NPP Changing in the Oceans?
Local and Global Consequences
Chapter 53 Review
53.1 How Does Energy Flow through Ecosystems?
53.2 How Do Nutrients Cycle through Ecosystems?
53.3 Global Climate Change
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Students
Professors
54 Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
54.1 What Is Biodiversity?
Biodiversity Can Be Measured and Analyzed at Several Levels
Genetic Diversity
Species Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity
Change through Time
How Many Species Are Living Today?
Taxon-Specific Surveys
All-Taxa Surveys
Where Is Biodiversity Highest?
Mapping Species Richness and Endemism
Mapping Biodiversity Hotspots
54.2 Threats to Biodiversity
Multiple Interacting Threats
Habitat Destruction
Habitat Degradation
Overexploitation
Invasive Species
Pollution
Climate Change
How Will These Threats Affect Future Extinction Rates?
Estimating the Probability that a Population or Species Will Go Extinct
Estimating the Effect of Habitat Area on Species Richness
Estimating the Effect of Global Climate Change on Species Distributions
Take-Home Messages about Making Biodiversity Predictions
54.3 Why Is Biodiversity Important?
Biological Benefits of Biodiversity
Biodiversity Increases Productivity
Does Biodiversity Lead to Stability?
Ecosystem Services: Economic and Social Benefits of Biodiversity and Ecosystems
Provisioning Services
Regulating Services
Cultural Services
Supporting Services
An Ethical Dimension
54.4 Preserving Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
Addressing the Ultimate Causes of Loss
Conservation Strategies to Preserve Genetic Diversity, Species, and Ecosystem Function
Education Campaigns
Genetic Restoration
Seed Banks
Management Plans for Invasive Species
Management Plans for Endangered Species
Ex Situ Conservation and Reintroduction
Wildlife Corridors
Designing Effective Protected Areas
Ecosystem Restoration
Quantifying Ecosystem Services
Take-Home Message
Chapter 54 Review
54.1 What Is Biodiversity?
54.2 Threats to Biodiversity
54.3 Why Is Biodiversity Important?
54.4 Preserving Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function
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Students
Professors
The Big Picture
Appendix A Answers
Chapter 1
In-Text Questions and Exercises
Test Your Knowledge
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Doing Biology
Bioskills
Chapter 2
In-Text Questions and Answers
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 3
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 4
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 5
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 6
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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The Chemistry of Life
Chapter 7
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 8
In-Text Questions and Answers
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Chapter 9
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 10
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Energy for Life
Chapter 11
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 12
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 13
In-Text Questions and Answers
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Chapter 14
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Apply Problem-Solving Strategies
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Chapter 15
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 16
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 17
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 18
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 19
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Genetic Information
Chapter 20
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 21
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 22
In-Text Questions and Answers
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Chapter 23
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 24
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 25
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Evolution
Chapter 26
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 27
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 28
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 29
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 30
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 31
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 32
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 33
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Diversity of Life
Chapter 34
In-Text Questions and Answers
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Chapter 35
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 36
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 37
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 38
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
How Vascular Plants Work
Chapter 39
In-Text Questions and Answers
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Chapter 40
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 41
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 42
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 43
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 44
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 45
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 46
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 47
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 48
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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How Humans Work
Chapter 49
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Chapter 50
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 51
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 52
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 53
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Chapter 54
In-Text Questions and Exercises
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Put It All Together: Case Study
Ecology
Appendix B Periodic Table
Glossary
Credits
Illustration, Graph, and Table Credits
Chapter 22
Chapter 25
Chapter 27
Chapter 31
Chapter 45
Chapter 47
Chapter 48
Index
Numbers
Symbols
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
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